The history of humanity shows that, down through the centuries, people have manifested their concern to control, recover and exchange information. One could say that the concepts "control" ages. What has changed have been the forms and techniques used to bring about these activities. To apply new techniques in the control, recovery, and exchange of information is to do these activities in a way that is supposedly better than the way they were previously done.

Our age is characterized by the accelerated growth of new technologies that permit a multiple orientation of activities involving the analyses, storage, recovery and exchange of information.

The appearance and development of computers of differing storage capacity, the great advan-ces in telecommunication, the appearance of low-cost computers, the appearance of systems based on the concept of "artificial intelligence", the design of laser technology, the availability of systems of remote control sensors, the use of internationally accepted standards, among other aspects, have modified the way of realizing and managing the diverse activities involved with the task of library science and thus, with the quest for information.

It has been shown in practice that the rational and professional use of computer technology, for the processing of information, is very useful because it produces many benefits that facilitate the analyses, storage, recovery, and exchange of information.

Within this context one can say that the use of new technologies can solve diverse problems associated with the processing of documents and library services, among others. Therefore, these technologies become indispensable, and at the same time, enable us to face the challenges of auto-mated information of our current world and help prepare us to face the technological challenges of the future.

In addition to the use of new technologies it it useful to analyze the vision of our current world regarding the use of information. It seems that humanity is becoming more and more dependent upon the use of information. This dependence requires that the experts in the area of information administration and management modify the operation methods, the capacity to generate, analyze, store, recover, distribute and exchange information, since the timely relevance of that information can have important repercussions in various areas of society.

The idea of a society of information and of a new industrial revolution is already accepted. Various countries are rearranging their strategies based upon these new premises, and some authors are proposing a post-industrial society, based fundamentally upon the service sector, in particular, that of information. The concrete effects of this can already be detected in some of the more developed countries, where the information sector has had substantial growth, both in its contribution to the national gross product, as well as in the proportion of jobs dedicated to this activity. For example, in the United States, close to 50% of the economically active population are employed in activities related somehow to the management of information ( U.S. Department of Commerce, 1977).

Today information is not just a topic of interest. It is a valuable economic resource, that represents a cost, and it has fundamental, strategic potential in the relationships between indivi-duals, organizations, and countries. In addition, information can have a much greater multiplying effect than that of other resources, and generally permeates the greater part of the activities, influencing both its efficiency and its effectiveness (Molino, 1987).

Within this context one can affirm that the use of international formats for the storage and exchange of information plays a relevant role in the communication between information units. It can be observed that on its use, information transfer is facilitated, and consequently knowledge.

One can observe within international circles that in the generation of numerical, textual, and bibliographical data bases, the use of formats permits the storage and transfer of information in a systematic manner.

The data bases that have the greatest utility and prestige are those that meet the criteria of information storage and exchange according to national or international standards. The most frequently used standards in the area of library science are the formats MARC, INTERMARC, references of the UNISIST, CEPAL, CCF, the Anglo American Cataloguing Rules 2, the ISBD standards, classification systems such as the Dewey, the United States Library of Congress, the CDU, among others. Formats used for the subject headings are Robira, Escamilla, and the United States Library of Congress. Regarding the utilization of a thesaurus, the most commonly used formats are ERIC and UNESCO.

Various standards approved by ISO play an important role in all that refers to the exchange of bibliographical records, especially the standard ISO 2709.

Cataloguing levels that are used principally among the bibliographical data bases are based upon the three levels of the cataloguing of the RCA2. Nevertheless, there are complete text data bases that are not necessarily based upon strict norms.

Bibliographical data bases generally include principal entries at three levels: personal author, corporate author and under congress, assembly or other meeting. They contain cataloguing des-criptions at different levels, subject headings or descriptions. Some data bases include a summary. These elements are considered bases for recovering information as well as providing services to the user.

Regarding computer programs that provide storage and recovery of information, recent years have seen the emergence of market programs such as DOBIS-LIBIL, SIBIL, and MINISIS, among others.

In addition, currently there are packages of distribution at no cost, like the micro system CDS/ISIS made by UNESCO, that can handle up to 16 million records, in data banks that contain upwards of 600 million characters (Molino, 1990).

It can be observed that bibliographical data base design has necessitated systematic docu-mental analysis related to stored information. In this context, international standards have left their influence upon these designs.

The computer as support for the analysis of documental information, presents one of the rubrics in which it can be said there exists a major incidence in regards to its application. Stan-dardization in the analysis and coding of information for its later storage and recovery plays an important role. It is well known and proven that the use of national or international bibliographical standards has repercussions upon other aspects of information delivery. This facilitates the exchange of products and services with other units of information which in turn facilitates or increases the services available for the final user.

It is also understood that information contained in data bases, is better used when such infor-mation is shared with other data bases. This makes services easier to use and available in greater quantities.

Regarding the area of documents, different efforts have been made in order to establish nor-mative procedures to exchange bibliographical information in a legible form through the use of computers.

These efforts have permitted the current availability of different formats to exchange auto-mates bibliographical information. They are based upon the premise that standardization can lead to a greater sharing of information.

It is currently acknowledged that for the exchange of automated bibliographical information, a large percentage of the international library community uses the MARC format. The service centers for summaries and indices use the format contained in the Reference Manual UNISIST. Some national libraries utilize the UNIMARC or INTERMARC format. More recently, various information centers have begun to use the CCF format.

Since a real difference exists between the differing formats for the processing of information in libraries and documentation centers, it is obvious that the exchange of information is made more difficult. However, there exists the possibility that computer programs can be created which would permit the compatibility of formats. Nevertheless, it is also true that the creation of such programs requires time and economic expenses, which generally are quite costly.

The proliferation of formats for the exchange of records, irregardless of the fact that the majority are derived form the same origin, has been the source of a certain amount of concern.

Duchesne has pointed out that "the result willbe a Babel of national methods that will soon become unmanageable in a dynamic situation" (Duchesne, 1972).

Standardization and compatibility are inseparable in the framework of bibliographical record exchange. Standardization and compatibility in this context should be observed at different levels. Thus, we have an exchange format that is intimately involved at different levels: with information aspects, library aspects, and standardized exchange aspects.

International experience in record exchange has shown that total compatibility, at least until the present, has not been possible to achieve. This is due fundamentally to the fact that it is un-common that different databases utilize the same computer equipment, the same computer pro-grams, the same exchange formats, the same standards of cataloguing descriptions, or the same level of descriptions. Only if this were to come about could one speak of absolute compatibility.

The integration of data bases requires the standardization of exchange formats. Being more precise, we should speak of a singular format, so that the computer only has to process one format. Boiko and Polozhentseva have pointed out that "a format puts into practice a set of semantic and formal decisions regarding a utilized to describe a document of a certain type" (Boiko, 1980).

As has already been mentioned, the problem of compatibility for the exchange of bibliogra-phical records has been a source of concern among the international library community. Never-theless, it is appropriate to raise the following question: has it not been that same community that has created confusion in information exchange due fundamentally to the creation of various formats for this purpose?

Nevertheless, in spite of the existence of research in the field of library science realized by recognized specialists, up until now no one has been able to create a program or a package of programs that permits the automatic conversion of records in an international framework. The best that has been achieved until now has been the compatibility of records on a national level or be-tween large international information centers, that under special agreements, submit to technical standards that facilitate compatibility in exchange.

However, in addition to the difficult task of designing and maintaining standards that faci- litate all possible implementations, there also exists the problem of their promotion and adoption.

Things are made more difficult due to the existence of different organizations that produce standards that operate at different levels. Nevertheless, national institutions that produce stan-dards, such as the American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI), participate in the creation of standards at the international level and play an ever increasing role. There are international organizations such as UNESCO/UNISIST and the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) which cooperate with ISO, which is currently responsible for international standardization.

It is important to recognize that the professional efforts and economic expenses dedicated to the creation of data bases justify a thorough analysis of the consequences of bibliographical para-meters which are considered to be the structure of their own data base. If we add standardization aspects and information which is to be stored, since diverse resources are added to this task, it is necessary to consider a broad coverage in the use of the processed information and not permit its utilization only at the level of the organization that created it.

Regarding Mexico, some of the previously mentioned aspects have influenced the shape of the design of bibliographical data bases. Specifically referring to the use of international formats, it can be observed that the formats MARC and more recently CCF, are the most widely used. This reflects certain relevant historical data regarding the automation of Mexican libraries.

The beginning of automation applied to Mexican information centers occurred around 1971. The Center of Scientific and Humanistic Information (Centro de Información Científica y Humanística-CICH) of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México- UNAM) which became the first agency that began automation of documen-tary information. In that year this organization began the automation of periodical publications, subscription lists, bibliographies, individual profile services, etc.

Design guidelines were shaped around the creation of data bases that would respond speci-fically to the needs of the agency. This is reflected, among other things, in information storage formats, which, of course, do not fit international standards.

In 1974, the first research projects were begun to create the LIBRUNAM system, also realized by the National Autonomous University of Mexico, through its General Administration of Libraries (Dirección General de Bibliotecas - DGB). This data base was designed and built upon the MARC format with the purpose of being easily compatible for users of this format.

In 1975 the National Council of Science and Technology (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología - CONACYT) began a project named Library Network (Red Núcleo de Bibliotecas). Eleven Mexican libraries participated providing the catalogue files of their library holdings. The basic format used for the storage of information was MARCAL, a format derived from MARC.

The network never became a reality. Nevertheless, the experience acquired in the initial attempts of application of the MARCAL format, represented important aspects in the discussion which took place at the 38th Congress of the FID (International Federation of Documentarians), held in Mexico.

It was also about 1976 when the Institute of Judicial Research (Instituto de Investigaciones Juridicas) of the UNAM created the UNAM-JURE data base, shaped to process Mexican legis-lation. The storage format was defined by the agency. Nevertheless, this cannot be considered a completely local project because this system was designed with the cooperation of the Institute of Research and Studies for the Handling of Judicial Information (Instituto de Recherches et d'Etudes pour Traetament del Information Juridique) of Montpellier, France.

Beginning in 1977, the management of different institutions developed greater consciousness regarding the benefits that would come with the application of automation in the management of documentary information. This new awareness, among other factors, has led to the current situa-tion in which a large percentage of Mexican institutions possess computer systems which are used primarily to realize administrative and academic-scientific activities. Some agencies have their own computer system, as is the case of the General Administration of Libraries of the UNAM. This has permitted these agencies to develop integral systems for the management and recovery of information.

The fact that diverse institutions have computer equipment has enabled Mexican libraries to be the recipients of computer resources to realize activities which are strictly related to library science. The most notable activities are: the control of library loans, the design and implemen-tation of data bases, principally those created for the acquisition and technical processing of bibliographical materials, and the circulation and use of foreign data bases.

Some libraries do not have access to the computer systems of their agencies. Nevertheless, this limitation is partially overcome by telephone connection with more than 400 foreign data bases. They are also connected to about 14 national data bases through the communication instru-ment SECOBI of the CONACYT.

The possibility of designing and implementing data bases is basically dependent upon econo-mic resources. In Mexican libraries there have been various attempts to create automated informa-tion systems. However, some of these attempts have been postponed or abandoned due to econo-mic reasons or policy changes.

Currently, the use of automation in Mexican libraries is very promising. One can observe an important development in the use of electronic media in various libraries. It is widely accepted in diverse media within society that the creation of automated data bases constitutes a useful tool for information services. This is especially helpful regarding the storage and recovery of information and the multiple uses that can be made of it, among other, its exchange.

Since 1984, CONACYT has played an important role in the development of Mexican data bases. This development has been fundamentally shaped so that its implementation can be realized using micro-computers, utilizing the MICROISIS package of programs and the CCF storage format.

The creation of data bases in Mexico has had the following orientation: there are 33 data bases with an econometric character in the sciences, 40 in technology, 15 in the humanities, and 15 involve multiple disciplines.

Regarding the number of bibliographical data bases that primarily aid the technical processing of documentary materials, it is estimated that there are approximately 160. Nevertheless, in order to confirm the reliability of this quantity of data bases it is necessary to do actual field research in order to demonstrate their existence.

2. STORAGE FORMATS

Regarding formats utilized for the storage of information, the majority of Mexican data bases use the MARC and CCF formats. However, local formats, which have been designed by the agencies to meet their particular needs, are also used.

The fact that internationally acknowledged formats are utilized, determines that Mexican libraries can realize the process of product exchange with relative ease.

The General Administration of Libraries of the UNAM and the University of Colima deve-loped computer programs that permit information exchange based upon the MARC format and ISO 2709 standard. Nevertheless, currently there is no documented Mexican experience which indi-cates the existence of a formal program for the exchange of bibliographical information among Mexican data bases.

3. COMPUTER APPLICATION PROGRAMS

Regarding this topic two tendencies exist. The first is that some agencies have created their own computer programs. Others utilize packages of programs already created such as MINISIS, MICROISIS, MICRO-QUESTEL, MICROBIBLOS and LOGICAT.

MICROISIS is being heavily promoted by CONACYT. Its adoption is complemented by the use of the CCF format, according to the instructions suggested by the same CONACYT.

4. COMPUTER OPERATION EQUIPMENT

Equipment used in Mexican data bases are macro-computers, mini-computers, and micro-computers. Those that are served by macro-computers have experience in the shared use of computers. That fact has frequently caused delays in the processing of information.

There are very few agencies fortunate enough to have data bases with a mini-computer dedi-cated solely to library functions, such as the LIBRUNAM system, the CICH, and the National Library (Biblioteca Nacional).

The current tendency is toward the use of micro-computers given their versatility and their relative low cost. Care has been taken in the acquisition of new equipment to guarantee that it is compatible with other computers already in service in other libraries.

5. SERVICES

There are multiple services offered by Mexican data bases. Those of greater relevance are line searches and the obtaining of products printed in different styles.

It can be affirmed that in Mexico the institutions of higher education and research are those that have been more involved in the creation and development of automated data bases. In like fashion, the Council for Culture and the Arts (Consejo para la Cultura y las Artes) through its General Administration of Libraries (Dirección General de Bibliotecas) has given a strong impetus to the use of automation in its national network of public libraries.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico could be considered the pioneer university in the production of data bases because 11 data bases in different fields have been produced up until the present. All are currently in operation. But the accomplishments realized by other univer-sities are worthy of recognition since, taken together, they constitute the greater part of the existing data bases in Mexico.

The University of Colima, since 1903, has provided a strong impetus for the development of library computer programs. From this impetus SIABUC (Integral Automated Library System of the University of Mexico) was created in 1983. The current concept that shapes the design of this package of programs is that it should be operated in micro-computers, cover the control, organiza-tion and modernization of the process of bibliographical analysis, as well as the circulation of library materials, and aid administrative decision making.

The design of the SIABUC packages of programs are based upon the MARC format for their storage of bibliographical information. It can be affirmed that the Mexican librarian community is aware of the benefits that can be achieved by the use of computers in libraries. This affirmation is based on the fact that numerous national forums have been held regarding the automation of libraries. The experiences in the area of automated information that various sectors of Mexican society have realized have been presented and discussed. These forums increased interest among librarians to use automation as a tool to aid various library processes. In like manner, they have created awareness among the automation specialists regarding the precision and standardization required by the automated management of bibliographical information.

In the area of continuing education, there are Mexican agencies that permit both the librarian and the computer specialist, immersed in information management, to take courses in order to increase their knowledge of automation applied to libraries, as well as library knowledge that could be automated.

These courses are mainly offered by the University Center of Library Research (Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas), the Information Center for Sciences and Humanities (Centro de Información Científica y Humanística), and the General Administration of Libraries, all of which are agencies of the UNAM.

Mexican librarian associations such as AMBAC, ABIESI, the National College of Librarians (el Colegio Nacional de Bibliotecarios), and the ABIGMAG, have taken the initiative to organize such courses and seminars.

CONACYT has also organized courses oriented towards the automation the of libraries. These have been principally in the management of packages of computer programs and techniques for the recovery of information.

Private enterprise has also become interested in creating computer packages oriented towards the management of bibliographical information, or in putting on the market foreign packages with library applications. Therefore, the Mexican librarian that needs to create a data base for a certain application, has available, in addition to all the wealth of already proven experiences, the possi-bility of obtaining products from the private sector. Thus, the librarian can choose the product that is best suited to the development of the proposed system. Packages of programs designed for librarians by the Mexican private sector are LOGICAT and MICROBIBLOS. Both utilize the MARC format for the storage of information. The market of Mexican information centers has been good for the private companies. It can be noted, however, that Sistemas Lógicos has implemented greater marketing skills for its products. Therefore, Microbiblos is less well known and conse-quently its products are less used.

Given the panorama presented in this study, it can be said that the Mexican librarian commu-nity is quite aware of the benefits that come from the creation of automated data bases, including information standardization and the timeliness and relevance of the data that is obtained. Never-theless, the production of future data bases and library networks will depend upon the availability of information, service costs, budget aspects of Mexican libraries, and the cost and ease of satellite and telephone communication. Such communication is provided by the Mexican government for the transmission of information through national and international agreements in the field of tele-communications.

6. CONCLUSIONS

This general overview concerning the use of international formats for the exchange of biblio-graphical records, in information centers, has had as its purpose the identification of the context in which the design of bibliographical data bases occurs, as well as the exchange of information based on those formats.

We can observe that the creation of various formats for the exchange of bibliographical records limits the flow of information exchange. This is due to the problem that occurs when information from one data base needs to be transferred to other data banks and these are not structured along the same format. Computer programs then become necessary that can achieve compatibility between these formats. Not all data bases are designed to handle these compatibility programs, especially if such compatibility programs are not cost efficient.

Speaking specifically of Mexico, two formats, MARC and CCF, are most widely used. This could be interpreted as facilitating the exchange of information between Mexican or foreign data bases that operate upon these formats. Nevertheless, reality demonstrates that there are no docu-mentary records, neither at the national nor international level. The fact that a project of this nature does not exist raises the question whether the bibliographical wealth is being utilized at its greatest potential, given the quantity of Mexican bibliographical data bases. Perhaps a project of this nature is not attractive because it is not cost efficient. Nevertheless, the human and financial expense already spent on the design, development, and maintenance of these data bases would well justify analyzing the possible implementation of some program of cooperation of automated bibliogra-phical records among like-minded institutions.

On the other hand, it is necessary to think about the future proliferation of data bases in Mexico. Have CONACYT with its orientation concerning the use of MICROISIS, the University of Colima with its SUABUC, Sistemas LÓGICOS with LOGICAT, and others, considered the real aspects of a technical nature that, at the right moment, would permit the integration of the various data bases that have arisen based upon these packages of programs?

The increased use of these program packages, among others, has been of great benefit for the Mexican librarian, since it has provided the opportunity for the librarian to interact in the automated management of information for controlling one's library holdings. Nevertheless, we should keep in mind that cooperation between libraries is fundamental due to the benefits this cooperation brings to the final user. Therefore, we should consider that the use of different formats for the storage and exchange of information represents a factor of isolation since in order to have a high degree of cooperation in the context of automated bibliographical records, there must be stan-dardized parameters.

We cannot forget that the development of science and technology, the increase in cost of literary production, the function that information centers have in selecting and acquiring useful library holdings, the high cost of manual processing of documents, the need to share and exchange information between information centers, the responsibility of libraries to acquire information and documentary information that they need in a relevant, pertinent, and timely manner, are some of the multiple reasons that justify the systematic research and quest for the use and application of auto-mated processes that provide the necessary help for the activities carried out in the information centers.

It has been proven that the use of new technology in the selection and acquisition of docu-ments, in bibliographical analysis, in services for the final user, in the transmission of information over great distances, and the exchange of the same by way of diverse electronic media, facilitates and speeds up these and other librarian tasks. Nevertheless, one must also keep in mind that the adoption of new technologies affects traditional ways to organization and can affect the librarian's mentality, when one is faced with a new tool for the first item.

Twentieth century people live in the era of technology and systems. This determines the posture of a special, mental attitude that is required to analyze the technological challenges that affect our way of life and, therefore, our profession.

Another important aspect that merits our reflection regarding the exchange of data and the use of new technologies is the thinking of John Naisbitt who affirms that we are immersed in a new information society. The advent of this concept produces, for the first time in the history of humanity, an economy based upon a key resource and one that at the same time is renewable and self-generating.

This has come about fundamentally because today, great sectors of society have the necessity of greater access to information due to the nature of their work and also due to the proliferation of the information media. This proliferation causes a reappraisal of the librarian's task, since this consists of organizing information and knowledge for use and exchange on a large scale.

Finally, I would like to add that faced with the increase in literary production, the need to reduce costs in library processes, and the search for new products that satisfy the expectations of the final users regarding information, we should not forget the benefits of cooperation and ex-change between information centers. It is well understood that if one desires to obtain substantial achievements, it is necessary to encourage the exchange of processes, products, and services, without any aspect that impedes the division of labor, and the free circulation of information and transfer of cooperative experiences.
 
 

REFERENCES

Boiko, N.V. y Polozhentseva. G.Y., "Compatibility of formats for representing bibliographic information automated IRSs," Automatic Documentation and Mathematical Linguistic. New York, vol 14. no. 3, 1980, p. 33.

Duchesne, R.M., "MARC and SUPERMARC," The exchange of bibliographic data and the MARC format. Munich: Verlanga Documentation, 1972. p. 36.

Molino, Enzo., "Perspectivas de la tecnología de información," Simposio Internacional sobre Ciencias de la Información. México: Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo, 1990, h. 4.

Molino, Enzo, "Secobi: Acceso al conocimiento," Presentado en: Segundo Poro de la Comisión de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Cámara de Diputados," Ciencia y Tecnología en Tiempo de Crísis. H. Cámara de Diputados, México, 21 octobre 1987. p. 53.

Velazquez Merlo, Fernando. Estructura, Función y Contenido de los Bancos Nacionales de Información. p.225.

U.S. Department of Commerce. The Information Economy: Definition and Measurement.

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