AGRICOLA, the bibliographic database of the U.S. National Agricultural Library, is a hit in Andhra Pradesh, India, where SATCRIS (Semi-Arid Tropical Crops Information Service) res-ponds to the information needs of agricultural researchers in Asia and Africa. SATCRIS is located in the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), in Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh.

Specifically, it is the CD-ROM version of AGRICOLA that makes a big difference at SATCRIS, half a world away from the online services that provide access to AGRICOLA in the United States. Online searches are possible at this center, but they are too costly for librarians and researchers to use on a regular basis. It takes CD-ROM to make AGRICOLA available all day, every day at ICRISAT.

CD-ROM is no longer just a future possibility in knowledge utilization. It is now in daily use around the world. Evaluations of CD-ROM versus online reveal that, when CD-ROM and online are available side by side, CD-ROM is preferred for its speed, low cost, "friendliness", and "smartness".

The simple technology for using CD-ROM helps to account for its rapid adoption. Almost all of the 40 million personal computers now in use worldwide can use the inexpensive CD-ROM drives. Self-contained external drives can be added to PCs like printers, but an increasing number are being installed internally in new PCs at an even lower cost per drive. The number of CD-ROM drives in use has doubled each year for several years; at the end of 1989 it was estimated to be 544,000. Because of large-scale adoptions of CD-ROM for document delivery by government agencies and corporations (for example, a mid-1990 order for 182,000 drives from the U.S. Defense Department), it is estimated that a million new drives will be shipped each year by 1992.

Mass production of CD-ROM drives has reduced their cost by more than 25% per year since 1986. In the same period, the cost of CD-ROM mastering and replication has declined by more than 33% per year.

2. FROM PRINT TO ONLINE TO CD-ROM

When effectively organized and disseminated, information is a principal resource for economic and social development. Strategies for organizing and disseminating information have changed dramatically in the past twenty years. During this period, five developments have transformed the information environment:

• Online information services became widely available, providing information users with large electronic databases and means of accessing them (early 1970s).

• Research on diffusion and technology transfer led to new knowledge networks combining the "high tech" of electronic access to information and the "high touch" of interpersonal linkage (late 1970s).

• Personal computers enabled information users to create and analyze information without the cost and other limitations of mainframe computers (early 1980s).

• CD-ROMs capable of storing entire databases at first paralleled the coverage of online services by providing access to bibliographic information (late 1980s).

• Major conversions of full-text documents to CD-ROM are creating entire "bookshelf" collections in many scientific, technical, and professional fields. Multimedia CD- ROMs combine bibliographic records with full text, images, and sound (early 1990s).

The twenty-year period began with the vision that large valuable collections of information could be made available electronically anywhere in the world at reasonable cost. Because of extra-ordinary technological achievements in which many countries have participated, that vision is now close to reality.

3. A SPECIAL ROLE FOR CD-ROM IN INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Technical information has significant costs even prior to publication. The process usually begins with extensive research and culminates in careful writing, editing, and illustration. However, the next costs, those of publication and distribution, are the least affordable. Printing, binding, and shipping are too costly to allow the fullest distribution of information that would be beneficial. Usually, as a result, only a small number of copies are published and distributed. Furthermore, the high costs of publication and distribution must be charged against the resources available for research or action programs.

On the scale of a CD-ROM containing hundreds of documents, the difference in cost between printing and CD-ROM replication is quite dramatic. For example, for each 100,000 pages of text, the printing and CD-ROM replication costs are shown below, as is the shipping cost. The ship-ping costs pertain to U.S. domestic mail; international rates are considerably higher, as shown in the Figure 1.

The economies of CD-ROM for international development communication continue after the initial production and distribution of the discs. The ratio of storage space required for printed documents versus CD-ROM is greater than 100 to 1. Time required to locate desired information

on a CD-ROM is much less than in printed documents. This difference increases with the specifi-city of the information, since a CD-ROM retrieval system can locate the exact passages in which chosen terms occur in proximity to each other. When the desired information has been retrieved, it can be saved on an individual user's PC without need for photocopies. It can be faxed directly from a PC to other sites.

The opportunity to reduce information production and distribution costs while increasing the usefulness of the information has encouraged international agencies to investigate CD-ROM publishing. Prototype discs have been produced and evaluated in field sites. Agencies are now moving forward with full-scale publishing plans.

The most ambitious single project involving CD-ROM in international development commu-nication is probably the Compact International Agricultural Research Library (CIARL) being published by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), located in the World Bank, Washington, D.C. CGIAR is a group of 40 donor agencies that jointly fund 13 agricultural research centers worldwide. Over the past 25 years these 13 centers and an additional 7 centers with closely related research programs have published over 25,000 scientific and technical publications documenting their research results.

More than 5,000 books from the 20 agricultural research centers are now being converted to electronic form by Saztec International and will be published on 25 CD-ROMs by Knowledge Access International. The library consists of 450,000 text pages and 120,000 illustrations. CIARL is so large that one disc has been set aside just as a complete catalogue of the books as well as a keyword "Book Finder" and a "Syntopicon" of interconnected concepts found in all ofthe 5,000 books. Each of the other 24 discs provides complete indexes for its 200+ books.

4. THE NEXT CHALLENGE: WORLDWIDE USE

The one-foot bookshelf of 25 discs will represent the end of one major effort and the begin-ning of another. As one of the world's largest integrated text/image collections on CD-ROM, CIARL will be an important engineering and publishing accomplishment. However, it will then begin its journey toward worldwide use. At that moment, CIARL will be similar to the hundreds of improved agricultural practices found in its books -- it will be an innovation poised for diffusion, a new technology ready to be transferred to other sites.

The extensive literatures on the diffusion of innovations and technology transfer contain many well-tested principles, including:

5. BARRIERS TO CD-ROM ADOPTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND A SEARCH FOR SOLUTIONS

5.1. Hardware, the Ally

The PC revolution has been beneficial in developing countries. Mainframe computers and minicomputers have been prohibitively expensive and have required outside cadres of technicians. PCs have proved to be reliable across a wide range of temperatures and humidities as well as in settings where electric power varies erratically. The capabilities of newer PCs as "micro-main-frames" have an economic significance everywhere, but they are especially critical in settings where larger computers are not available.

Of course, PCs require some adaptation for use in adverse conditions. Voltage regulators and standby power supplies keep PCs running where electric power is untrustworthy. Dust is an enemy of disk drives and circuit boards. PC cooling fans contribute to the problem by expelling air that is drawn in through openings such as disk drive doors; the ingenious solution is to reverse the fan so that it blows air in through a filter rather than out. However, since any device can fail sometime, an important difference between PCs and larger computers is that a user can perform many of the repairs and replacements without outside help.

In less than a decade of widespread use, PCs have emerged as an ideal intermediate techno-logy for many tasks involving information, from research analysis and information retrieval to desktop publishing. Not just in developing countries but worldwide, PCs have enabled organiza-tions and individuals to be self-sufficient in tasks that once could be performed only with large computers.

The appeal of CD-ROM lies not only in its low-cost, high-density storage but also in its part-nership with PCs. For the first time, large free-standing databases can be used at the same work-stations where researchers, librarians, editors, and publication managers are working on related tasks. The output from CD-ROM searching can be incorporated electronically in the other tasks.

Publishers of information in or for developing countries early recognized that the CD-ROM medium was as reliable as the PC or more so: "Compact discs are much more durable than con-ventional microcomputer hard or floppy disks. They do not scratch or wear out and the integrity of the disc is not affected by service blemishes or finger prints. Dust, the major hazard of automation in tropical countries, has very little effect on the reading accuracy. The discs are also highly tolerant of heat and humidity" (Dellere, 1987).

5.2. Hardware Costs

Hardware itself is not a barrier to CD-ROM adoption, but the costs of additional PCs and CD-ROM drives may be. In a 1989 survey (CGNET Services, 1990) commissioned by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 292 respondents from 93 countries indicated what barriers to CD-ROM adoption, if any, were likely to affect their research centers or libraries. Eighty-two percent of those responding to the question on conditions for adopting CIARL said that additional funding was "absolutely essential". At the present time, the worldwide centers can obtain an 80386-SX PC with 40-MB hard disk and CD-ROM drive from CGNET Services in the U.S. for about $3,000; local prices vary considerably in Latin American, African, Asian, and Pacific countries. A laser printer with enough memory to print full-page high-resolu-tion images would add $2,000 to this cost. However, with some sacrifice in performance, a complete 80286 PC workstation with 20 MB hard disk, CD-ROM drive, and dot-matrix printer would also cost about $2,000.

Cost issues in CD-ROM use will be discussed with increasing frequency in the 1990s. Already some information is being published only on CD-ROM, which means that it can be used only by those with access to CD-ROM workstations. Although the costs of hardware and non-commercial CD-ROM titles are low, they may not be affordable everywhere.

However, whereas a $100,000 gift or subsidy would barely launch a print collection at today's costs, a CD-ROM library with far more titles could be established for $10,000 -- including the CD-ROM workstation. International agencies, national governments, hardware manufacturers, and publishers should work together to ensure that no one is denied access to information simply because it is available only on CD-ROM.

5.3. Title/Software Costs

Discs of greatest value in international development tend to be non-commercial and are there-fore inexpensive. Retrieval software used on international development CD-ROMs is usually inexpensive as well. Of course, there are exceptions in both cases. Some discs of great value in international development, such as CAB Abstracts, cost $1,000 and more per year. These high prices often reflect a publisher's concern for lost revenues from online searching or book sales. However, CD-ROMs sold in developing countries have little impact on a publisher's revenues from online searching or book sales. There could be, and perhaps will be, lower CD-ROM prices for developing countries.

5.4. Lack of Awareness

A hypothetical poll conducted today anywhere in the world, including North America and Europe, would uncover the fact that many agricultural researchers and extension workers have not heard of CD-ROM as an information technology. Of those who have heard about CD-ROM, most have not used it themselves. Of those who have used CD-ROM resources such as AGRICOLA, CAB Abstracts, or AGRIS, only a few know that the 25-disc CGIAR CD-ROM library is forth-coming. There are too many developments in a field like agriculture and too little time for busy workers to attend to them. AGRICOLA alone grows by 10,000 articles per month.

International agencies like CGIAR have large constituencies and small budgets for commu-nicating with them. The agencies rely largely on information relays such as word of mouth and newsletters to reach beyond the organizations in each country with which they work directly. Word of mouth and newsletters are credible channels but slow; they should be primed with announcements of CIARL so that potential adopters will be aware of the extraordinary scope and economy of the CD-ROM library by the time it becomes available.

5.5. The Need for Demonstration

"Amazing" technologies are assured of some attention in communication media and inter-personal networks. For example, newspapers and magazines have published more stories about developments in CD-ROM than about developments in online information that may be quite impor-tant (in countries with good access to online services) but are not amazing.

However, amazing technologies are handicapped at the next stage in diffusion -- that of adequate understanding among potential adopters. What is the frame of reference or visual meta-phor that helps a potential adopter to visualize 5,000 books in 23 cubic inches of storage space, when the 25 discs are stacked together outside their cases? If the complete text, images, and indexes of 12 books occupy 1 square inch on the CD-ROM's recording surface, how can the user imagine searching on every meaningful word in the text or choosing any image to display?

The answer is that "seeing is believing". CD-ROM represents the historical separation of information from the physical space that it "should" occupy. However, when CD-ROM is demon-strated, simple commands and menu choices prove that the user is master of the disc. Search terms are entered, and the disc instantly gives back the exact passages where they occur. An image is requested, and the disc instantly sends it to the PC for display.

In the 1989 CGNET Services survey involving 292 respondents from 93 countries, 77% of those responding to the question on conditions for adopting CIARL said that an opportunity to see a demonstration of CIARL was "absolutely essential". The message is, "I'm willing to believe this, but show me first."

5.6. The Need for Collection Development Guidelines

Over many decades, publishers and libraries have adopted a common perspective on the components of a significant collection in any field. Books and serials form the core of the collec-tion, augmented by national and international agency reports, annual reports from research centers, conference proceedings, irregular periodicals, theses and dissertations, research data, microform collections, and online access to primary text and data. Surrounding this core are indexes and bibliographies, both in print and online, that facilitate access. Many items in a major bibliographic database are not available in a local collection, but interlibrary loan and document delivery services can supply most of them. Major repository libraries now use fax transmission to fulfill requests for brief materials such as journal articles.

The first CD-ROMs that libraries encountered were one-for-one replacements or supplements of bibliographic databases; they were not difficult to classify. However, the contents of "book-shelf" CD-ROMs spread across many categories. One CD-ROM may contain an extensive biblio-graphic database, a collection of full-text monographs with little distinction between previously published or unpublished materials, serials, conference proceedings, research data, a collection of "vertical file" images, and so on. Librarians are asking where such discs fit into their collections. Local procedures, ranging from cataloguing to circulation, must be updated for CD-ROM acqui-sitions. For example, should the 5,000 books in the CIARL collection be represented individually in a local catalogue? If so, what is a reasonable procedure for accomplishing this large task?

Anticipating that many libraries will want to catalogue the CIARL books individually, two different versions of the complete catalogue are included on the CIARL master disc. Each library will find that one of these versions is the easier one to incorporate in the local catalogue.

Beyond these immediate concerns, libraries need to plan for the next decade of collection growth. There will be an increasing reliance on the low per-book costs of CD-ROM (the cost ratio in CIARL is greater than 20 to 1, print versus CD-ROM). Microform and online resources have always been peripheral to a library's core collection, but "bookshelf" CD-ROMs are a new means of building the core collection itself. Librarians are unaccustomed to acquisition decisions involv-ing thousands of books in a single package. What are the guidelines for deciding?

5.7. "Computer Anxiety"

Offsetting the millions of satisfied PC users who can't imagine performing certain tasks without the computer are at least thousands who can't imagine performing tasks with a computer. For some, beliefs of their culture, class, or profession inhibit them from using a computer. Others have difficulty thinking about their tasks in the computer's methodical way. Still others fear a loss of esteem if they try computing and are not immediately successful.

Ideally, computer anxiety would have nothing to do with CD-ROM use, because a CD-ROM "appliance" would not look like a computer nor operate like one. In Japan and the United States, CD-ROM players without PCs have been introduced for home use. With a specially designed retrieval system that places all choices on menus, CD-ROMs can be searched with only a few push-buttons.

However, the soon-to-be million installed CD-ROM workstations do look and operate like PCs. Many non-users will have to overcome their computer anxiety if they want to benefit from CD-ROM libraries of information.

5.8. Logistical Problems

Anyone who used a PC more than ten years ago probably remembers the struggle of con-necting printers to PCs. It seemed that every printer had a different combination of connections. Standardization thereafter solved the problem so that PCs and printers could be interchanged.

CD-ROM is now in a similar period of confusion because of overlapping generations of equipment and rapid growth in the number of titles. When CD-ROM drives are first installed or when discs are used for the first time, incompatibilities may emerge that are hard to diagnose and resolve. After reading the manual, calling for technical assistance, or relying on trial and error, these incompatibilities are invariably resolved. However, overworked librarians or researchers encounter too many logistical problems, they may want nothing more to do with CD-ROM.

We know, of course, that standardization will follow. CD-ROM drives will plug into PCs as simply and reliably as hard drives now do, and discs will have standard installation procedures. Early adopters can then tell stories of how they had to rewrite their CONFIG.SYS files for discs from Publishers A, B, and C, then restart the PC when changing discs.

5.9. The Skills of Electronic Searching

The costs and complexities of online searching created a predicament for librarians. They could either train users in online searching and accept the high costs of novice online sessions, or they could conduct the searches themselves. Most librarians had no choice but to conduct the searches on behalf of their users. They became increasingly skilled at electronic searching, but their users gained no experience at all.

CD-ROM has overturned this pattern. Most discs are designed and marketed for end users. Librarians are becoming "search consultants" who help users to choose a disc and begin a search session. Users are then on their own. Unfortunately, there are too many different CD-ROM retrieval systems in use for librarians to train users on the finer points of searching particular discs.

Menus and simple commands are only the interface for CD-ROM searching. The important process of formulating a goal and a search strategy still take place in the user's head. Electronic searching is different from the types of library research that users already understand. The literal-ness of electronic searching is the key to retrieving exact passages, but it is likely to frustrate users who do not understand how to broaden or narrow a search, guided by the search results. Over time users learn the searching mysteries of "true positives", "false positives", "true negatives", and "false negatives", but at first they walk away with irrelevant material and leave relevant material behind.

The shorthand "AND", "OR", and "NOT" of Boolean logic create confusion in CD- ROM searching. The user who wants reports for "Mexico and Guatemala" probably means "Mexico or Guatemala" rather than "Mexico and Guatemala only when cited together in the same report". However, the expression "Mexico AND Guatemala" will retrieve only the latter. Boolean logic is not difficult to understand; it is just phrased in a peculiar way relative to natural language. Since "AND" and "NOT" narrow a search while "OR" broadens it, a clearer terminology could be adopted in training and in on-screen prompts.

CD-ROM retrieval systems have more features than online retrieval systems, including hypertext searches, image display with zoom and pan, user-added fields and notes, direct linkage between bibliographic records and full text, options for manipulating the retrieved output, and, in the case of CIARL, multilingual prompts and help. Each retrieval system upgrade brings a new layer of features. Experienced users value the features, but new users simply have more to learn. For this reason, CIARL will incorporate a new "Minimum Standard Interface" -- a single screen for performing a simple search, displaying the results, and printing them if desired. New users can limit their searches to the Minimum Standard Interface until they are ready to explore additional features.

6. NEEDED: AN INFORMATION EXTENSION SERVICE?

There is an irony in the rapid spread of new information technology. Formerly, information was not widely available. However, when and where information was available, it was easy to use. In the future, almost any information will be available anywhere via the complementary channels of CD- ROM and online. However, users may not know how to use it. The foundation of information equity is shifting from availability to capability.

The new information literacy is not difficult to master. In a few days of training and practice, users can learn what is available, how to access it, how to conduct efficient searches, and how to incorporate the search results in their work.

Scientific and professional workers accept the need for continuing education. Their back-ground knowledge and problem-solving skills must be updated often. In the past, continuing education has not focused much on information skills. The ability to conduct a library search was thought to be sufficient. In the future, worldwide information resources will be available to every user, but access will be electronic. Until the new information literacy has been mastered, it should be a focus of continuing education.

Electronic access skills are quite new. Who will teach them? Who will teach the teachers? Can international agencies and other stakeholders join forces to establish an "information extension service" that will bring such instruction directly to users in all regions and countries? Can carefully prepared materials, including instructional videos, multiply the outreach of the direct training?

The waste and suffering of not having information when and where it is needed are well documented. In agriculture, preventable harvest losses are an enormous drain on the world econo-my every year. Labor, seed, soil, fuel, and petroleum-based fertilizer and insecticide are invested on much less than the possible return. The greatest cost of not having information is that hunger persists.

Information does not solve the world's problems. However, information changes the world a little each time it reaches those who need it and is effectively used.

REFERENCES

CGNET Services International. International market potential of CD-ROM in agricultural organizations. Washington, DC: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1990.

Dellere, R. Better access to information in agricultural research. [Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation] Courier, No.106, November-December 1987, pp. 102-103.

Frierson, E.G. and Paisley, W., "From paper to CD-ROM: Information dissemination to feed the world's hungry," CD-ROM End-User, 2 (3): 34-37 (July 1990).