Rapidly increasing technological developments offer exceptional opportunities to libraries and information systems to improve their services. Implementation of any new technology will be more successful if a thorough systems analysis and design is performed first. In these days of poorly funded information centers and libraries, it may be tempting to skip this step to save money. This is an unwise and unnecessary choice, because information specialists and librarians can adapt their interviewing and research skills to perform the necessary systems analysis and design for their organizations.

Systems analysis and design is a technique of problem solving that involves three steps:

• Identifying relevant variables,

• analyzing various factors, and

• determining an optimum, or at least an acceptable, solution (Wetherbe, 1988, p.27).

Systems analysis and design is simply another application of the skills an information specialist or librarian uses daily. An information specialist or librarian has the skills required to perform a systems analysis and design. The process requires the ability to conduct an information needs analysis, and then to do the research required to devise a solution to the needs this analysis reveals.

Section 2 of this paper will outline the methodology of systems analysis and design, Section 3 presents a case study, and Section 4 is a discussion of the methodology applied to the case.

2. METHODOLOGY

A systems analysis begins with the identification of new opportunities or new problems in the existing system. For example, in an information center or a library, this may be the opportunity to connect to a telecommunications network or a problem updating an online catalog in a timely fashion. Both opportunities and problems can be identified by staff members at all levels and by clients. The systems analyst (SA) may use interviews, surveys, or a combination, in the identification process.

The SA next analyzes and documents the existing system in the organization. A system is a group of related entities that form a whole. An example of a library system is the catalog of the collection, on paper or in electronic form. For the analysis, it is important to interview those closest to the process, namely the staff and, if appropriate, clients, as well as the managers and supervisors in the organization. In addition, the analysis may include a study of available documentation for technology in use. The SA must have a clear understanding of what is currently available and how the various entities interact in the organization before beginning to research solutions (Wetherbe, 1988, pp. 10-12). An outside SA has an advantage in viewing the system more objectively than those who are immersed in the use of the system. Information specialists or librarians analyzing their own systems must be as objective as possible.

Creative discovery of alternatives allows the SA and the client to come up with as many solutions as possible. The creative discovery process may use techniques which include imagining without restraint, scanning without explicit purpose, associating ideas and elements, experimenting or test-ing, and communicating with staff members and clients. This results in a wide range of alternatives. The following questions help narrow the focus of the creative analysis to determine which solutions are possible and then the optimum or most satisfactory solution:

• What new or improved information products or services should be provided?

• How should information activities be organized?

• How should who get what, when, at what cost and to what extent?

• What supervision of use is required to prevent waste or excessive cost?

• How can the system best adapt to changing needs?

• What level of funding is required? (Palmer and Varnet, 1990, pp. 32-33)

After the alternative means for the solution are identified, the SA begins to design the system. This begins with establishing criteria and objectives for the system. The SA decides which entities will be included in the system and how these entities will be structured. The SA identifies the tech-nology and personnel that will support the optimum solution. All practical means of support must be recognized. Rapid technology development makes current technology obsolete quickly so the most current information must be researched. Cost-versus-benefit must be considered in the evaluation and selection of technology and personnel. Training of personnel and other end-users is a crucial component of the optimum solution and needs to be included in the cost estimates.

Once the decision has been made on technology, design and personnel, the system is developed, tested and validated. Any additional hardware and software are installed and computer programs are coded and tested where necessary. The desired outcome of this step is a reliable system that achieves the objectives of the design. Developing documentation that is easy to read and understand is essen-tial to the success of any technology. The documentation must be tested by the users of the software and hardware.

The new system is now implemented. It is vital to evaluate the system as it is used. This eva-luation will assess the variation between the planned and actual system performance. If the new system does not meet the design objectives, or presents new problems or opportunities, part or all of the system analysis and design process may have to be repeated. If the system is suitable, it must be maintained until new opportunities occur (Wetherbe, 1991, pp. 13-30).

3. CASE STUDY

This case study will describe how the first four steps in the systems analysis and design process were used in the analysis and design of a system for Aviation Maintenance Inc., a two partner cor-poration of general aviation mechanics based at St. Paul Downtown Airport in St. Paul, Minnesota. The analysis was conducted by an information specialist who has no background in aviation, com-puter programming or operations. The process is applicable to systems analysis in an information center or library as well as in any other setting.

The SA prepared for the first interview with the client by reading journals and government publications dealing with the field of general aviation, which includes aircraft weighing less than 12,500 pounds. This generally includes aircraft not used commercially or by corporations.

The SA interviewed the client to determine the problems with the current system and opportuni-ties for change. This initial in- depth information interview revealed that the corporation had no computer and that all record keeping was done on paper, by hand, and kept in files in a file cabinet. The client wanted to begin replacing this paperwork with computer records. He wanted to start the process by entering inventory into a database, keeping records on each client's aircraft on file in the computer and using the computer to generate invoices. He wanted the invoices tied to the inventory so when a part is listed on an invoice, the quantity is automatically decreased in inventory.

The client was cautious about using technology for all record keeping because he had encoun-tered a poorly designed computer program with a former employer. The client's wife did the bookkeeping at home, using paper records from the invoices. If the first phase of conversion is successful, the client would like to have the computer used for this task as well, possibly using a modem to connect a computer in his home with the computer in the office. The client is interested in having fax capabilities.

During the second interview, the SA and client discussed at great length what information the client wanted to keep on each aircraft and why he wanted to keep each piece of information. The client decided he wanted the name of the manufacturer and the part number, if applicable, for all major parts the mechanics will maintain and repair on each aircraft. The client needed quick and easy access to this information in case an aircraft owner had a mechanical problem away from home and called to verify a detail or if one of the mechanics was called to repair a plane when it was at another airfield. In addition, the client could order and have on hand the parts that are apt to be replaced when each aircraft is scheduled for its annual inspection for airworthiness certification. This annual inspection is legally mandated every twelve months for aircraft to be certified airworthy. An aircraft without airworthiness certification may not be flown.

It is noteworthy that the discussion itself triggered new insights for the client. The dialogue itself produced changes in his own perception of the problem.

A vital component of the annual inspection is checking airworthiness directives (AD). An AD is an item of inspection or maintenance in an aircraft's airframe, engine or accessories identified by the Federal Aviation Administration. It is mandatory that each AD be complied with every year for the life of the aircraft. The client now keeps microfiche records for these ADs. For each aircraft, the mechanic must use the microfiche index to find every AD for the particular model of aircraft being inspected. Then every AD must be viewed on the microfiche. It takes one to two hours to search and view the ADs on a single engine aircraft and longer for a double engine aircraft. Reducing this time was an important goal.

The client felt that one report could be used for both single and double engine aircraft. The SA constructed a client information form and sent two copies to the client to use when performing the next annual inspection on an aircraft. The client's initial reaction was that form was too long and single and double engine aircraft should be on separate forms. The client discovered additional items to include after using the form when performing an annual inspection. The SA reworked the cus-tomized form three times. The client tested each revision by using it while performing an annual inspection. The fourth version of the form met his needs precisely.

The SA and client began to consider the requirements for the inventory database. Only parts which would be charged to clients on the invoice would be entered into the database. The number will increase from about 1,000 items to between 1,500 and 2,000 items within five years. The client wanted to organize the inventory in a new storeroom and give each item a shelf location before entering this information into the computer.

Manufacturers of aircraft parts identify them as Military Specification (MS) or Army Navy (AN) and use MS or AN as the first two characters in the part number. Many parts identified by an MS number have an identical AN counterpart produced by a different manufacturer. The client wanted to have both part numbers listed when applicable. The MS number will be the primary number, and the AN number will be the alternate number. The client wanted one printed list showing primary part number, AN number, item and shelf location as well as a second printout of just those parts with AN numbers. This second printout will include the same information for each part. These lists will be kept in the parts storeroom.

Other fields the client wanted as part of this database included: a three letter code to identify the vendor; the list cost, which is the amount charged to the client for the part; the cost each, which is the amount paid to the vendor; and extended cost, which is the quantity times the cost. The quantity of each item would be tied to the invoice so that when a part was used, the quantity would automatically decrease. The client specifically did not want an indicator to show when the quantity reached a certain point. The SA determined the fields in the inventory database, defined them and gave them to the client to review.

The SA and client next examined the requirements of the invoice. The client wanted it to look similar to the one he was using. The invoice needed to include specific information on the owner and the aircraft. There had to be a description of services. One section would include the quantity, part number, item and list for each part used. Another would describe any sublet jobs. Gas, oil and solvents would be entered separately with the quantity and price for each. Labor was figured at two rates, one for inspection time and another for repair time. Only parts were taxed. Freight costs and hangar and tie-down rents were included on some invoices. The copy for the bookkeeper had to include cost and extended cost as well as list and extended list. The SA designed an invoice that included these specifications. The client tried it and made changes based on use. The SA incor-porated the changes requested by the client.

The SA now had the information needed to begin the research leading to recommendations for software, hardware, training and future growth. As is often the case, there were restrictions on the system. The client had a strong preference for an IBM compatible, as opposed to a Macintosh, computer. The programmer previously selected by the client was a dBase programmer.

The SA described the requirements of the proposed system to an independent programmer experienced in dBase and other database programs to ensure that dBase would be an appropriate database for this system. The SA reviewed the literature and talked to vendors to determine software specifications and select utility software and a typing tutorial. The hardware must be based on software requirements. An IBM compatible machine will support dBase and other recommended software. Studying the reviews in PC Magazine, PC World and BYTE resulted in computer and printer specifications which will meet the client's current needs and allow for future growth of the system.

The client in this case had no computer skills so the training recommendations began with a typing tutorial. A basic class in DOS as well as introductory classes in using dBase must be com-pleted for the system to be successful.

For the future, the SA recommended the addition of a CD-ROM drive. ADs will be available on CD-ROMs late in 1992. The time saved will pay for the drive and CD-ROMs within one year. A fax modem that can be used to send orders to vendors and invoices to clients was recommended for purchase in the future. Accounting software can be installed in the computer when the client is comfortable with the technology.

The final step in this systems analysis and design project was the development of a data dic-tionary and directions for the programmer. To determine the field size for each field in the database, the client checked his files and counted the number of characters in the longest entry in each field. The documentation for the inventory database (Figure 1) includes both field sizes and definitions of the fields. The databases for the aircraft information, the ADs, and the invoice require similar docu-mentation. The invoice documentation detailed programming steps to be taken to extract information from the databases to produce an invoice matching the customized report.

4. DISCUSSION

This case study includes only the first four steps of the systems analysis and design process because the client was not ready to purchase the computer. An office to house the computer and printer was being constructed, as was a storeroom for inventory. No technology can be installed until the construction is completed late in 1992 or early in 1993.

The client knew that the excess time spent on record keeping was a problem. He believed that a computer and appropriate software would offer an opportunity to save time now spent on keeping records by hand.

The SA analyzed the existing system through a series of in-depth information interviews with the client. Only one of the partners now keeps the records, and he is the one who is interested in using a computer. This simplified the interviewing. In many situations there are many people who must be interviewed to understand the total existing system. There was no need to use surveys of staff or
 
 

clients in this case. The person available to interview knew the business very thoroughly so addi-tional interviews with his partner were not necessary. The process of interviewing and reinterview-ing remains the same, regardless of the size of the organization.

An important element was the repetitive refinement that took place in several steps. There was testing of the proposed system as the SA provided the client with copies of each version of the cus-tomized reports developed, the client used them, and provided the SA with feedback which resulted in improved reports. During the course of designing the invoice and reports, an initial design was constructed, then refined over several steps before the right document was produced. The SA and client met once a week and interviewing and testing took six weeks to complete. It was essential to allow the client time to use the reports and make changes as required. He thought he knew what he wanted, but it took five interviews to identify what he really needed. It is in this phase that an infor-mation specialist's or librarian's skills in information needs analysis are so valuable. They have the ability to help the client focus on what is essential. A system will fail if these initial steps are omitted or not performed thoroughly. It is tempting to plunge directly into designing the software and hardware requirements for a new system, but this can lead to a deficiency in the analysis of the real needs of the end user and result in programs or technology that do not fit the needs of the client. There is no substitute for taking the time to do an informational analysis.

Although this system was small, there were nevertheless opportunities for creative discovery. The client had already decided what services would be provided and who would be using the system. A larger project dealing with more people, more services, and a larger budget present more opportunities for creativity in determining solutions.

There was no need to identify personnel for this project because there will be only one user. Re-searching available training to identify the most appropriate classes for this one user was an impor-tant step. Failure to determine and complete appropriate training for all users can lead to disappoint-ment with the technology in any size system.

The client had selected a dBase programmer, and this dictated the choice of the database program to use. The SA interviewed an independent programmer to ascertain that dBase was an appropriate program for the client's needs. Because it was an appropriate software tool, the SA did not research other database software. A review of current literature was used to select a typing tutorial and utilities program. Interviewing vendors and other users of the technology being studied are also appropriate means of ascertaining suitability.

The client wanted to use an IBM compatible computer, so the SA made recommendations on specifications for a machine that will support current and future uses. The printer specifications were also based on current and future use and were made after an extensive search of the literature.

An information specialist or librarian acting as an SA may or may not be able to code computer programs or install hardware and software, but can certainly test and validate the system to see if it achieves the objectives of the design. An information specialist or librarian in the role of an SA can work with the staff and public to test the clarity of the documentation. If any part of the system does not meet the users' needs, the SA can repeat all or part of the systems analysis and design process. If the system is suitable, it must be maintained. An information specialist or librarian SA can remain involved with the system, evaluate it periodically, and be aware of new opportunities when they arise.

5. CONCLUSION

A complete systems analysis and design is required before implementing new technology in an information center or library. The information specialist or librarian has the skills to perform the analysis.

The systems analysis and design process begins when an opportunity or problem is identified in the system. The existing system is analyzed by the SA using interviews, surveys and a study of documentation. Many alternatives are explored and technology and personnel to support an optimum solution are identified. Maintaining a dialogue with the actual end-user of the system contributes to refinement at each stage of the process. The new system is developed, tested and validated. The new system is implemented and maintained.

An information specialist performed a systems analysis and design for a two-person general aviation corporation. Five information interviews provided the base for the analysis. The SA helped the client articulate and express what the corporation needed the computer to provide. Working with the client's restrictions in choice of software and hardware, the SA researched the literature to make recommendations that will produce optimal use of a computer and printer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Marti Palmer, Adjunct Professor of the College of St. Catherine; Melinda Salis-bury, Graduate Student of the University of Minnesota; and President of the Aviation Maintenance, Inc. for their assistance and encouragement in preparing this paper.
 
 

REFERENCES

Palmer, Richard Phillips & Varnet, Harvey. (91990). How to Manage Information: A Systems Approach. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Wetherbe, James C. (1988). Systems Analysis and Design. 3rd ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publish-ing Company.