A library uses some printed media to promote its services and to accomplish its goals. How-ever, in bibliographic searches made by the author of this paper, it was found a total lack of use and awareness of the technology of text in the printed media used by the library world. Therefore, the objective of this paper is twofold: first, present a short overview of some of these principles; second, offer practical applications in the library printed materials, specially in the bibliographic instruction program.

So, in this paper, it will be seen the concept of technology of text; the use of printed media in bibliographic instruction; a review section which comprises mainly text access, marginalia, dis-course punctuation, and a typographical cuing system; finally, a list of library printed media for visual publicity or instructional purposes, is offered.

2. TECHNOLOGY OF TEXT DEFINITION

Technology of text, for the purpose of this discussion, is the application of a scientific approach to text design. The technologies applied in this process represent the scientific applica-tions of theories and principles of neuropsychology, perception, learning, memory, reading, and typography (Jonassen, 1982, pp. ix-xiii). This paper will be described the practical applications of these principles to the written media by which the bibliographic instruction is carried out.

3. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTION - LIBRARY MILIEU

Let's conceptualize first a bibliographic instruction program as part of a library's public services. Traditionally, libraries organize activities between those where direct contact with the patron/client occur on a daily basis -- public services, and those with very limited public contact, in the technical services areas -- acquisitions, bindery and repair, cataloguing and serials control. Public services revolve around circulation and reference activities. Reference services is to make information available to library users. It takes three primary forms:

• Finding information to answer specific questions;

• Helping users to find information for themselves; and

• Teaching users how to use library resources and how to do library research (Evans, 1992,

p.67).

4. TECHNOLOGY OF TEXT REVIEW SECTION

Having set up the library milieu in which we are going to work, the following will review some guidelines derived from the technology of text which can have applicability to the biblio-graphic instruction activity:

4.1. Understanding and access to text. Comprises a revision of access structures of both global and local accessibility such as: Contents list, summaries, headings, layout and others.

Waller (1982, pp. 137-165) points out that the books, magazines, packages, and other texts that surround us, display a wide variety of formats and styles. The way the text will be used has a major influence on a designer's decisions. These differences in textual communication and direct personal communication lead us to say that text is a static and reflexive medium, and it uses lan-guage in quite a different way from speech, which is dynamic and reactive. The difference is that speakers can see the reactions of their listeners and alter course in response to the immediate feedback provided by puzzled, bored, or surprised expressions, or questions from the listeners. A conclusion from this is, that although the text argument presented can be more carefully controlled by the writer, its reception is controlled by the reader. An instructional writer, i.e., an author of textbooks, do-it-yourself books, how-to-use sections in commercial products, etc., can predict comparatively little about their readers - their abilities, purposes, opinions, prior knowledge or personal circumstances, except that their readers must read selectively. It has been found that a straight-through linear strategy is not typical of efficient readers. Moreover, advisors on reading and study skills quite commonly recommend students to read selectively, previewing texts by scanning ahead and selecting particular parts for special attention.

At college level, students are assumed to be fluent readers and instruction centers around study skills, but the corresponding efforts are no made by those responsible for instructional materials as is the case - in academic libraries - of bibliographic instruction librarians. How can these materials be designed to aid college users trying to use selective reading strategies?

The structure of text can be made accessible both by the provision of special typographically structured devices and also by the graphic treatment of the text itself. These access structures have two main functions: They have a global role in identifying or characterizing particular units of text, and giving visual structure to an argument.

Having presented the rationale for these access structures, they will be listed and explained as related to the printed media transmission for bibliographic instruction. They are:

• Global accessibility structures

- Contents lists: Potentially, they can serve as elaborate chapter summaries or even commen- taries.

- Index: An index is essential for a printed document designed to be used active and crea- tively. Indexes can be constructed to infinite levels of detail.

- Headings.

- Marginalia.

-- Marginal notes.

-- Running glossary.

- Differentiated printing.

- A typographical cuing system.

These will be further elaborated in the following sections.

The devices discussed above are all summaries, condensations or restructured collections of concepts occurring in the main body of text. At a more local level, though, while actually enga-ging the author's argument, an accessible visually-cued structure is also helpful.

4.2. The role of marginalia in text processing.

• Headings: Although headings may also have an organizing function at the global level so that readers can skim-read them to gain an overview, their primary function is an orienting one. That is, they label the text so readers can locate the information they need and while reading be reminded of the context of the discussion and the point they have reached in a branching or hierarchical argument. We will concentrate on two headings aspects -- their content (what should they say) and their position (cross-headings, side-headings, and running headings).

The first problem is what should they say. One good way to overcome the problem is to use both a technical title, which may best describe the topic to be discussed, and a non-technical sub-title, which could be useful to the skimming reader. About their position, we can put headings in three different ways -- Cross-headings, side-headings, and running headings.

- Cross-headings are used in most scholarly books. They interrupt the text and imply a boundary and a change of subject. They therefore have a role in structuring the argument, often replacing more discursive transitionary techniques.

- Side-headings, though allow the flow of discourse to continue, can be used, in effect, to com-ment on it or summarize it.

- Running headings are positioned along the top of the page, can be used in the same way to summarize the contents of the page, and remind readers of the general context of the specific information on the page.

• Marginalia: As Duchastel points out (Duchastel, 1985, pp. 210-235), marginalia is a class of elements that are ordinarily defined by their presence alongside the main body of the text itself. Thus, it includes not only notes and technical terms but also any other elements that can be posi-tioned in the page margin, such as headings, section numbers, illustrations, and so on. We will concentrate only on two important forms of marginalia -- Marginal notes, and key definitions in the form of a running glossary.

- Marginal notes serve two important text-processing functions for the student. They facilitate access and they summarize. Indeed, they can be viewed as elaborated labels that facilitate access to the ideas discussed at length in the text, and one can view them as a running summary that replaces the end-of-chapter summary traditionally included in text materials.

Access devices of this sort assist the reader in engaging in the following type on ongoing and automatic questioning, as he or she processes the text -- What will be treated in this paragraph? How does it fit into my current representation of the topic? The summarizing function, on the other hand, responds to a different type of question involved in the same ongoing learning process, so what is essential here and what is secondary? How can I synthesize the elements presented here in a compact way which will not overload my limited - capacity working memory? It must be remembered that learning meaningful information is in effect a process of summarizing, i.e., of constructing and underlying hierarchy of relevance and concentrating one's attention on the upper levels of that hierarchy.

Now, let's make a comparison of marginal notes with headings, with typographical high-lighting, and with an end-of-chapter summary. In relation to headings, the role of marginal notes goes further than headings. It extends downward the level of detail involved in the access func-tion. Just as headings will enrich the access structure of an instructional material initially devoid of headings (straight, continuous prose), so, too, marginal notes can enrich the access structure of a material involving only headings.

Typographical highlighting, is generally, although not always, less articulate than a rewritten summary, which is the functional equivalent of marginal notes. It could be concluded that mar-ginal notes are functionally better than highlighting, but the choice of one of these techniques depends on costs, the nature of the material and aesthetic factors as well.

The end-of-chapter summary. Marginal notes constitute a running summary of the text and are equivalent in these terms with an end-of-chapter summary. Their value over the latter is quite straightforward: While they serve both a summarizing function, the former has besides an access-ing one, which the traditional summary does not.

So, it is clear that marginal notes have accessing and summarizing functions, and footnotes used as such devices can occupy the margins of a book as well.

- Running glossary can be defined as the presence alongside a text of the major technical terms which it contains. Its importance can be understood in terms of its function. The main function of a glossary is to enable a student to easily recover the meaning of a term encountered earlier but forgotten or unclear at the moment. Without a glossary like this, the student would have to use an end-of-book glossary and then attempt to recover the term's meaning through a possible cumber-some search through the pages listed for that glossary term. Furthermore, although bibliographic instruction librarians can teach students the proper use of a standard glossary when studying their instructional materials, such as printed guides, handouts, manuals, and so on, it is also certain that some students will nevertheless not use an end-of-book glossary when provided. The running glossary overcomes this usage problem to some extent. It must be remembered the large amount of new concepts and terms that a novice in Library searching can face when attends a biblio-graphic instruction course.

4.3. Discourse punctuation

Showstack (1982, pp. 369-376) suggests the inclusion of a brief outline at the beginning of any piece of printed matter which could show the organization of the contents. If provided with this, the reader can choose the parts of the material to give special attention to. However, other aspects of layout could also be used. For example:

In relation to a typographical cuing system, Glynn et al (1985, pp. 192-209) say that by cuing the reader's attention throughout the text, the author can help the reader to identify, organize and interpret the most important ideas in a text. In fact, when authors fail to provide cues, readers generate their own, i.e., they underline, make commentaries and write down concepts or defini-tions alongside the text.

Therefore, typographical cuing systems are nonverbal devices for attracting and focusing the reader's attention; they are part of the layout and one of their purposes is to set off important items of information and enhance their recall. Here are some examples:

Whether the bibliographic instructional method could be direct (using text and guides hand-outs), or semi-direct (using workbooks, worksheets, study guides), both the librarian and the user can profit from these technologies of text. Moreover, these devices have more applications in the library world. These include:

Firstly, the promotion of public library services to special groups. They are, according to Edmonds (1991, pp. 207-234), specific age groups, disabled individuals, non-native language speaking populations and institutionalized populations. For these, a library can promote their services according to how its market is segmented geographically, demographically, or by the needs of its users (Dean, 1990, p.53), adopting the principles enlisted above to the printed media used.

Secondly, The library's printed materials and publications. Edsall (1980, pp. 71-104) affirms that libraries are deep into the business of printing and publishing. He describes a 10-item list of printed or written materials that a library distributes or needs to prepare:

BROCHURES

• General

• About the library

• How to use the library

• Rules and regulations

• Special collections

• Special services

FLYERS

• Programs

• Activities

• Exhibit announcements

BOOKLISTS

NEWSLETTERS

• For general public

• For staff

• For special age groups

ANNUAL REPORTS

BOOK MARKS

POSTERS

STATIONARY

OVERDUE BOOK NOTICES.

Finally, some forms of visual publicity, such as signs, bulletin boards, displays, etc., can benefit from the principles already exposed (Garvey, 1969, pp. 17-24).

Curent availble technologies make it easier and far more efficient for librarians to apply new technologies as effective tools for promoting library services. Use them to the library's advantage!
 
 

REFERENCES

Dean, Sharon. Winning Marketing Techniques: An Introduction to Marketing for Information Professionals. Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association, 1990.

Duchastel,.Philippe C., "Marginalia", in The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text. v.2. David H. Jonassen, ed. Greensboro, NC: Educational Technology Publications, 1985.

Edmonds, Leslie; Jacobson, Frances F., and Sutton, Ellen D., "Reference services to special groups," in: Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. Richard E. Bopp and Linda C. Smith, eds . Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1991.

Edsall, Marian S. Library Promotion Handbook. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx, 1980.

Evans, G. Edward; Amodeo, Anthony J.; and Carter, Thomas L. Introduction to Public Services for Library Technicians. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1992.

Garvey, Mona. Library Displays: Their Purpose, Construction and Use. New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1969.

Glynn, Shawn M.; Britton, Bruce K. Britton; and Tillman, Murray H. "Tipographical cues in text: management of the reader's attention," in The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text. v.2. David H. Jonassen, ed. Greensboro, NC: Educational Technology Publications, 1985.

Jonassen, David H., "Preface," in The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text. v.2. David H. Jonassen, ed. Greensboro, NC: Educational Technology Publications, 1985.

Showstack, Richard, "Printing: The next stage: discourse punctuation," in The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text. v.2. David H. Jonassen, ed. Greens-boro, NC: Educational Technology Publications, 1985.

Waller, Robert, "Text as diagram: Using typography to improve access and understanding," in The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text. v.2. David H. Jonassen, ed. Greensboro, NC: Educational Technology Publications, 1985.

Wilson, Lizabeth W., "Instruction as a reference service," in Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. Bopp, Richard E. and Smith, Linda C., eds. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1991.