Helena F. Rodrigues
Johnson & Wales University Libraries
Providence, RI 02903, USA
E-mail: helenar@jwu.edu
Abstracts: This paper addresses the ergonomic issues related to the use of technologies in libraries.
Technology can make you sick! This is a very strong statement to make - especially at an international conference which promotes and introduces the latest in state-of-the-art products and achievements in information science. The reality is, however, unlike other products such as tobacco which is packaged with the warning, such as:
All too often, months or even years are spent debating and planning for new systems and the proper equipment. Specification of the products are studied and compared; system analyses are performed; and, of major importance, the cost factor is thoroughly scrutinized. However, one of the most important factors -- the human element -- is not even considered. The fault lies not with tech-nology but with human beings themselves who -- in an attempt to upgrade and improve their ser-vices -- consciously fail to address the human factor.
Some obstacles to achieving an ergonomically-correct environment:
• Money: Attention to ergonomic issues generally is an up-front investment requiring planning and budget allocations.
• Existing space: Older spaces often require a retrofit, and the temptation to "make-do" is compelling.
• Technology: A strong orientation to technology may overlook the human factor.
• Trivialization: Physical complaints caused by genuine ergonomics deficiencies may be discounted as routine problems. (Wright & friends, 1992)
Without the necessary planning, the incorrect use and placement of equipment may induce and/or produce the following complaints and disorders:
• Muscular Discomforts
Minor to severe pain in the shoulders, neck, upper arms, wrists, hands, back, and legs are common complaints. Repeating the same movements daily may produce repetitive strain injuries (RSI). These include: tenosynovitis, writers cramp, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Such discomforts usually are the results of prolonged and fixed positions at a workstation and the design of the equip-ment (Bichteler, 1987).
• Eye Fatigue and Discomforts
Asthenopia is another common complaint of library employees who perform video display terminal (VDT) work. As defined in Dorland's Medical Dictionary (1988), this condition produces "weakness or easy fatigue of the visual organs attended by pain in the eyes, headache, dimness of vision, etc." Causes of Asthenopia include: glare on the VDT's screen, long periods of time work-ing at the VDT, and incorrect lenses or prescriptions. In many cases, wearers of ordinary bifocals have difficulty in adjusting their vision to the screen display and neck pain occurs. Prescription lenses measured specifically for computer users are available (Morris & Barnacle, 1988).
• Stress
Stress could be considered the leading cause of VDT-related ailments. The list of causes which perpetuate this complaint is numerous and long. It emphasizes environmental conditions relating to space, lighting, noise, and temperature control; and poor workstation design including unfriendly software, job design, working procedures, inadequate supervision, improper training, and inappropriate management style (Bichteler, 1987).
• Radiation
Various types of radiation (x-rays, ultraviolet, microwave, infrared and low-frequency) have been named as causes of physical illness and problems from cataracts to carcinomas. Many studies have been conducted and the outcomes have suggested a probable link. The Radiation Control Act of 1968 has eliminated the danger and risk of most radiation by requiring lead shields on televisions, VDT's and similar equipment (Morris & Barnacle, 1989).
• Photosensitive Epilepsy
Evidence shows that, although VDT's are not the cause of epilepsy, prolonged eye contact with the VDT screen can initiate seizures in individuals with the pre-existing condition of Photo-sensitive Epilepsy (Morris & Barnacle, 1989).
• Skin Rashes
A variety of skin conditions ranging from facial itching to Erythema or reddening of the skin has been linked to the environmental conditions of low humidity and a high level of static (Morris & Barnacle, 1989). Common Sense Health Tips For VDT Users (Wright & Friend, 1992):
- Change position of the body frequently.
- Take frequent rest breaks. Intersperse other types of work between keyboarding tasks.
- Learn some simple desk exercises (e.g., finger fan, arm circles, upper and lower back stretches.)
- Make even small adjustments to workstation components. Changing seat height or vision distance from the monitor can make a difference by the end of the work day.
- Support wrists and hands using an accessory if possible.
- Loosen hand and wrist muscles. Keep hands flat not curved.
- Have vision checked frequently.
- Remember to blink and change focal distance frequently.
- Make sure lumbar support (and other back support) is present in the chair.
- Chair should support legs comfortably, with seat not too long or too short.
- Avoid sitting in a slumped-over position.
- Keep shoulders level.
3. THE ERGONOMICALLY-CORRECT WORKSTATION
Genaway (1989) describes ergonomics as "the symbiotic interaction of humans and equipment environment." As managers deal with an increasing number of physical complaints from workers who are stationary for most of the work day, the workstation environment is receiving more atten-tion.
The planning and thought that go into the initial process of choosing a particular system sel-dom go into the purchasing of public terminal equipment. Kenney and Wilson emphasize that, "Without this planning, users encounter problems ranging from poor screen formatting of biblio-graphic data to tables that are too low or too high.
• Work surface, including space for all activities and components of the task
• Seating for operator
• Video display terminal
• CPU unit
• Printer (unless networked and located elsewhere)
• Keyboard
• External modem (if applicable)
• Shelf space for documentation, manuals, etc.
• Accessories (document holder, mouse, lumbar support, wrist/arm support, footrest)
• Seating - Most experts agree that the chair is the most important component of the workstation. It is recommended that the height be between 16-21 inches from the floor, the depth should measure 15-17 inches, and a backrest be incorporated for additional lumbar support.
• The Monitor - The monitor should be adjustable with the capability of tilting and rotating. The screen should measure 12 or 14 inches diagonally. An anti-glare shield should be provided. The screen should be placed at or below eye level.
• The Keyboard - The keyboard should include the following features (Wright & Friend, 1992):
- An adjustable keyboard height allows the "home row" for each user to be in line with elbow.
- An adjustable slope allows the wrist to operate at an angle of 0-15 degrees to minimize risk of repetitive motion injuries.
- Keyboard should be a separate unit from the rest of the VDT
- Stability is important so it will not shift involuntarily during keying, but it should be light enough to move as necessary.
- Key should depress easily and not feel either "too hard" or "too soft" when keying.
- Keyboard should be constructed of glare-free materials, neutral in color, slightly concave keys, both large enough and with enough spacing for comfortable keying and minimal errors.
• The Modem - While internal modems require no workstation space and usually are less expen-sive, an external 2400 bps modem is acceptable.
• The Printer - The ink jet printer is the most practical for a workstation because it is quiet, fast and mid-range in price.
An important aspect of the workstation which is often overlooked is training the workers in the proper use of the equipment. Staff training should be offered in person by the supervisor and the equipment should be evaluated in relation to the worker. When necessary, the institution should purchase the necessary accessories to ensure that the comfort and all preventative measures are met for the worker.
4. GOVERNMENT LAWS AND LEGISLATION ON VISUAL DISPLAY TERMINALS
In the United States there are no federal regulations or guidelines which govern the use of VDT's and workstations in the private sector. Since 1985 legislation to regulate VDT usage has been introduced annually with no success.
As early as 1968, the Bureau of Radiological Health of the Food and Drug Administration developed a radiation emission standard to comply with the Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968 (42 U.S.C. 262-263a.) Within two years, the 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act (29 U.S.C. 651-678) was passed and authorized OSHA to establish standards for the design and use of video display terminals; and mandates employers to provide "a workplace free of recognized hazards" (Samuels, 1989).
In March of 1992, Glenn E. Haughie, MD, presented before a Congressional hearing his document entitled, "Statement on Health Research Initiatives Regarding VDT Use and Support for H.R. 3953, the National Electronic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination Act before the Subcommittee on Environment, Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, United States House of Representatives for the VDT Health Research Foundation." According to the paper, the VDT Health Research Foundation "was established to promote and sponsor both electromagnetic fields (EMF) and ergonomic health research related to the design and use of video display terminals, or computer displays, also known as VDTs." Dr. Haughie concludes that, "the body of scientific evidence gathered to date supports our industry's belief that CDTs, in particular the low level elec-tromagnetic fields and other emissions typical of VDT use, do not present a health risk for people using them," but they also believe that "a significant investment in health research, such as called for in H.R. 3953, must be viewed as imperative not only for safeguarding public health, but also for safeguarding the economic health of our industries by assuring confidence in the ongoing safety of our technologies." As Dr. Haughie summarized, "The VDT Health Research Foundation strongly endorses the need for a national EMF health research program as articulated in H.R. 3953."
Finally on October 24, 1992, HR 3983 became Public Law 102-486. It authorizes the research to determine the need for a study on "the effects, if any, of electric and magnetic fields on human health and remedial actions if any, that may be needed to minimize any such health effects." A report on this research program is to be submitted to Congress no later than December 31, 1995.
• History of Legislation
The Bureau of Labor Statistics stated that repetitive motion injuries (RMI) are the fastest growing occupational injury of the decade of the 80's with over 20 million reported cases.
According to a 1985 study by the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment, the trauma caused by RHI has been labeled the first major post-Industrial Revolution occupational illness and may become the leading cause of industrial injuries in history.
The results of a survey by Columbia Law School professor Alam Westin in 1987 reported that employees believed that "outside regulations might be necessary" if employers failed to willingly address the problems of VDT-related illnesses. Westin stated that nearly half of the companies in the U.S. would not act seriously "until regulations compelled them to act" (Reynolds, 1989).
In the United States on the state and local level approximately 50 bills were introduced in 33 states to regulate VDT usage relating to private industry. Five states (Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, Hawaii, and California) have passed legislation either to establish committees to study VDT-related issues, or to advise employers to consider the human factor and to provide training when installing VDTs.
While no states have legislated standards for VDTs, the District of Columbia and New Mexico have issued executive orders which establish ergonomic standards on VDTs used by public employees. At least six states (California, Colorado, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Wisconsin) have issued ergonomic-related guidelines for state procurement of VDTs and computer workstations.
Within the past few years, various VDT-related proposals have been introduced in state legisla-tures. Some proposals addressed the requirement of ergonomic guidelines or safety standards for VDT use; while others required that further studies be conducted concerning potential health hazards. In Massachusetts, three proposals were considered relating to ergonomic standards, (i.e., eye exams, alternative work for pregnant employees, and rest periods) (Samuels, 1989).
To date the only locally successful legislation in the U.S. has been the Suffolk County, New York law of 1988 which regulates VDT use in the workplace. In essence, the ordinance applies to companies with more than 20 VDTs, and requires a 15 minute break every three hours for employees who use the terminals more than 26 hours per week. In addition, employers must pay 80% of the cost of annual eye exams and the cost of eyeglasses. Since 1990, adjustable desks, five-legged chairs, and non-glare screens are compulsory for all new equipment (Gorman, 1988).
According to Verespej, "the law puts the heaviest burden on companies with production oriented word-processing operations, data-entry operations, and engineering departments with a heavy use of desktop and CAD/CAM computing systems."
Opponents of this law, including Beth Oneill, executive director at the Center for Office Technology Washington, D.C., agree that what is needed is education. She believes, "It's not the VDT; it's how you use it" (Scott, 1988). Supporters of this legislation, however, feel that "protecting employee health should be an overriding concern" (Hyatt, 1985).
While the guidelines set by the first VDT law apply mainly to furniture and equipment, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has issued a standard (ANSI/HFS 100-1988) with ergonomic guidelines which include design requirements for visual displays, keyboards, work-stations, and techniques for measuring compliance with the specifications (Ellis, 1988).
While the United States awaits the first Federal regulations concerning VDTs and work-stations, the European Economic Community (EEC) issued a Directive in 1990 which became law on January 1, 1993. This law addresses the minimum health and safety standards of display screen users.
The most important guidelines of the Law are (Morris, 1992):
• all existing workstations must meet ergonomic standards after December 1996;
• employers must analyze workstations from a health and safety viewpoint and remedy risks found with particular regard to eyesight, physical problems and problems of mental stress;
• all workers must receive training in the use of the workstation before starting work;
• employers must plan workers' activities to incorporate breaks or changes in activity from VDT work;
• workers or representatives must be consulted and be allowed to participate when implement- ing the directive;
• employers should offer employees eye examinations before starting work and at regular intervals thereafter.
Equipment
• the keyboard should be separate and tiltable and have legible key markings together with a matte surface;
• the chair should be adjustable in height and have an adjustable backrest;
• the desk should have a low reflectance surface and be large enough to accommodate equip- ment;
• footrests and document holders should be available on request.
Environmental requirements
• glare should be minimized to prevent distracting reflections on screen;
• office noise should not be at a level that disturbs or distracts speech;
• the temperature of the office should not cause discomfort to users;
• an adequate humidity level should be maintained;
• the level of radiation should be reduced to a negligible level.
• software must be easy to use, provide feedback and, where necessary, be adaptable to user's level of knowledge and experience;
• information should be displayed at a pace adapted to operators;
• the principles of software ergonomics must be applied.
• the cause of risk (e.g., poor posture);
• how users can reduce risk (e.g., changing posture, adjusting equipment, rearranging workstation, cleaning the screen and having breaks;
• how problems can be communicated to management;
• information on the regulations;
• he user's role in the assessment procedure.
The literature indicates that there is indeed room for improvement within our new electronic libraries. Perhaps in the near future, the EEC Directive, new regulations from the HSE, and pend-ing legislation in the United States will give employers the impetus to do something about this. Library staff using VDTs should be able to look forward to healthier, happier and safer working conditions.
5. CONCLUSION
The objectives of this paper were:
• To identify the physical disorders and discomforts associated with extended use of computer workstations,
• To describe the ergonomically-correct workstation, and
• To present an update on the status of laws and legislation concerning computer technology and its users.
In relation to libraries, managers should evaluate the work environment in order to achieve the ideal situation which offers comfort for humans and control for equipment. Initially, the time spent in preparing or improving an ergonomically-correct work area will not be wasted. It will, however, prevent the common physical disorders and discomforts which result in extended absences and low productivity.
A comprehension of ergonomics and the application
of its principles to the library work area will produce positive and rewarding
results. In other words don't let technology make you sick!
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